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1 certo
1.certō, adv., v. certus, adv. A.2.certo, āvi, ātum, 1, v. freq. a. [cerno], to decide something by a contest (cf. cerno, II. C. b.); hence, to fight, struggle, contend, combat, implying great exertion, and usually a measuring of strength (class. in prose and poetry; most freq. in a trop. signif.; syn.: decerto, contendo).I.Of a physical contest of strength;II.mostly of battle: utrum igitur utilius Fabricio... armis cum hoste certare, an venenis?
Cic. Off. 3, 22, 87:adulescentium greges Lacedaemone videmus ipsi incredibili contentione certantis pugnis, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique,
id. Tusc. 5, 27, 77:manu,
Sall. H. 2, 41, 6 Dietsch:proelio,
id. J. 81, 3:cum Gallis pro salute,
id. ib. 114, 2; cf. Tac. Agr. 5:de ambiguo agro bello,
Liv. 3, 71, 2:de imperio cum populo Romano,
Cic. de Or. 2, 18, 76:de principatu armis,
Tac. H. 2, 47; cf. Suet. Vesp. 5:odiis etiam prope majoribus certarunt quam viribus,
Liv. 21, 1, 3:acie,
Verg. A. 2, 30 et saep.— Impers.: dignus quicum certetur, Pac. ap. Non. p. 473, 16: certatur limine in ipso Ausoniae, Verg. A. 10, 355; 11, 313:die quo Bedriaci certabatur,
Tac. H. 2, 50:quā in parte rex pugnae affuit, ibi aliquamdiu certatum,
Sall. J. 74, 3:in cujus (amnis) transgressu multum certato pervicit Vardanes,
Tac. A. 11, 10; id. H. 4, 61.—Mostly poet. in pass.:certata lite deorum Ambracia (for the possession of which Apollo. Diana, and Hercules contended),
Ov. M. 13, 713:certatus nobis orbis (i. e. de quo certavimus),
Sil. 17, 342; cf. II. infra.—Out of the sphere of milit. operations, to contend, struggle, strive, emulate, vie with: certabant urbem Romam Remoramne vocarent, Enn. ap. Cic. Div. 1, 48, 107 (Ann. v. 85 Vahl.): haut doctis dictis certantes sed maledictis, Enn. ap. Gell. 20, 10, 4 (Ann. v. 274 ib.):2.minis mecum, minaciis,
Plaut. Truc. 5, 56:malitiā tecum,
id. Pers. 2, 2, 56:benedictis,
Ter. Phorm. prol. 20:certare ingenio, contendere nobilitate,
Lucr. 2, 11:cum aliquo dicacitate,
Cic. Brut. 46, 172:officiis inter se,
id. Fam. 7, 31, 1; cf.:certatum inter collegas maledictis,
Liv. 5, 8, 13; and:eo modo inter se duo imperatores certabant,
Sall. J. 52, 1:cum civibus de virtute,
id. C. 9, 2:pro sua quisque potentia,
id. ib. 38, 3:contumaciā adversus contemnentes humilitatem suam nobiles certavit (Licinius),
Liv. 9, 46, 4: cum usuris fructibus praediorum, to contend against interest ( to strive to pay interest) with the produce of estates, Cic. Cat. 2, 8, 18: cum a Cheruscis Longobardisque pro antiquo decore aut recenti libertate;et contra, augendae dominationi certaretur,
Tac. A. 2, 46:ob hircum,
Hor. A. P. 220:joco,
id. C. 2, 12, 18:mero,
id. ib. 4, 1, 31:animis iniquis,
Verg. A. 10, 7:parsimoniā et vigiliis et labore cum ultimis militum,
Liv. 34, 18, 5:sententiis,
Tac. A. 1, 29 al.:ut si nautae certarent, quis eorum potissimum gubernaret,
Cic. Off. 1, 25, 87:mos gentis est, equitare jaculari cursu cum aequalibus certare,
Sall. J. 6, 1:dic mecum quo pignore certes,
Verg. E. 3, 31:celeri sagittā,
id. A. 5, 485:certemus, spinas animone ego fortius an tu Evellas agro,
Hor. Ep. 1, 14, 4.— Poet., with acc.: hanc rem ( = de hac re), Sedigit. ap. Gell. 15, 24; cf. in pass.:cui (multae) certandae cum dies advenisset,
Liv. 25, 3, 14.—With dat. instead of cum:solus tibi certat Amyntas,
Verg. E. 5, 8; Hor. S. 2, 5, 19; id. Epod. 11, 18; 2, 20; id. C. 2, 6, 15; Verg. E. 8, 55; id. G. 2, 138; Ov. M. 14, 794.—Particularly of judicial disputations, to contend at law:3.inter se,
Cic. Verr. 2, 2, 16, § 39; cf. id. ib. 2, 2, 13, §32: in centumvirali judicio,
id. de Or. 1, 39, 177:si a duumviris provocarit, provocatione certato,
Liv. 1, 26, 6:si quid se judice certes,
Hor. S. 2, 1, 49:foro si res certabitur olim,
id. ib. 2, 5, 27.—With inf. (mostly poet.), to strive to do something, to labor, endeavor, struggle earnestly, to exert one ' s self:certantes ad summum succedere honorem,
Lucr. 5, 1123; so,inter se cernere,
id. 5, 394:dimittere se (nubes),
id. 6, 509:populum alium suorum sepelire,
id. 6, 1247:Phoebum superare canendo,
Verg. E. 5, 9:superare,
Ov. M. 5, 394:vincere,
Verg. A. 5, 194:tollere (hunc) tergeminis honoribus,
Hor. C. 1, 1, 8:inter se eruere quercum,
Verg. A. 4, 443:certat quisque evadere,
Curt. 9, 4, 33:frangere fluctus,
Plin. Pan. 81 fin.; Sil. 13, 222; Stat. S. 5, 3, 191. -
2 BÚ
n.1) household, farming;þat er bú, er maðr hefir málnytan smala, it is ‘bú’, if a man has a milking stock;gøra, setja, reisa bú, to set up a home for oneself;bregða búi, to give up farming;eiga bú við e-n, to share a household with one;fara búi, to remove one’s household;vera fyrir búi, to manage a household;búa búi sínu, to have one’s own household;búa úmegðarbúi, to have many dependants (unable to work);2) the stock of a farmstead (sumir lágu úti á fjöllum með bú sín);drepa niðr bú, höggva bú, to kill or destroy one’s stock;3) housekeeping;fá til búsins, to procure necessaries for the maintenance of the household;einskis þurfti í bú at biðja, there was plenty of everything;4) farm, estate;fara milli búa sinna, to go from one estate to another;eiga bú, to own an estate;5) home, house (reið Hrútr heim til bús síns);vera at or á búi með e-m, to live at one’s house.* * *n. [Hel. bû = domicilium; O. H. G. bû; mod. Germ. bau = tillage, cultivation; Hel. also uses beo or beu, = seges, cp. also Teut. bouwt = messis, in Schmeller Heliand Glossary:—the root of this word will be traced more closely under the radical form búa; here it is sufficient to remark that ‘bú’ is an apocopate form, qs. ‘bug’ or ‘bugg;’ the root remains unaltered in the branch to which Icel. bygg, byggja, and other words belong]1. a house; bú and bæ (býr) are twins from the same root (bua); bær is the house, bú the household; the Gr. οικος (Ϝοικος) embraces both; þeir eta upp bú mitt, Od. i. 251; biðla til móður minnar og eyða búi hennar, 248; bú mitt er á förum, iv. 318; gott bú, ix. 35; etr þú upp bú hans bótalaust, xvi. 431; svo hann er fær uni að veita búinu forstöðu, xix. 161; hús og bújörð, og góðan kvennkost, xiv. 64; the Prose Translation by Egilsson. In the Northern countries ‘bú’ implies the notion of living upon the produce of the earth; in Norway and esp. in Icel. that of living on the ‘milk’ (málnyta) of kine, ewes, or she-goats; þat er bú, er maðr hefir málnytan smala, it is ‘bú’ if a man has a milking stock, Grág. i. 158; the old Hm. says, a ‘bú,’ however small it be, is better to have than not to have; and then explains, ‘though thou hast but two she-goats and a cottage thatched with shingle, yet it is better than begging;’ Icel. saying, sveltr sauðlaust bú, i. e. a sheepless household starves: ‘bú’ also means the stores and stock of a household; göra, setja, reisa bú, to set up in life, have one’s own hearth, Bs. i. 127, Bb. 1. 219, Sturl. i. 197, Eb. 40; bregða búi, to give up farming or household; taka við búi, to take to a farm, Sturl. i. 198; eiga bú við e-n, to share a household with one, 200; ráðask til bús, id.; fara búi, to remove one’s household, flit, 225; hafa bú, hafa rausnar-bú, 226; eiga bú, iii. 79, Eg. 137: allit. phrases, börn og bú, Bs. ii. 498; bóndi er bú-stólpi, bú er landstólpi, the ‘bóndi’ is the stay of the ‘bú,’ the ‘bú’ is the stay of the land; búa búi sínu, Fas. iii. 312; búa umegðar-búi, to have a heavy household (many children), K. Þ. K. 90; hafa kýr ok ær á búi, Nj. 236: housekeeping, in the phrase, eiga einkis í bú at biðja, to have plenty of everything, Bs. i. 131, 132; bæði þarf í búit mjöl ok skreið, Nj. 18: home, house, reið Hrútr heim til bús síns, 4; á búi, adv. at home, Fms. iv. 256, Hm. 82.2. estates; konungs-bú, royal demesnes; þar er bú hans vóru, Eg. 42, 43, Landn. 124, fara milli búa sinna, to go from one estate to another, id.; eiga bú, to own an estate.3. the stock in a farmstead; sumir lágu úti á fjöllum með bú sín, Sturl. iii. 75; drepa niðr bú, höggva bú, taka upp bú, to kill or destroy one’s stock, Fms. ix. 473, Stj. 90.COMPDS: búsafleifar, búsbúhlutir, búsefni, búsfar, búsforráð, búsgagn, búshagr, búshlutir, búshægindi, búskerfi, bústilskipan, búsumsvif, búsumsýsla. -
3 Agriculture
Historically, Portugal's agricultural efficiency, measured in terms of crop yields and animal productivity, has been well below that of other European countries. Agricultural inefficiency is a consequence of Portugal's topography and climate, which varies considerably from north to south and has influenced farm size and farming methods. There are three major agricultural zones: the north, center, and south. The north (the area between the Douro and Minho Rivers, including the district of Trás-os-Montes) is mountainous with a wet (180-249 cm of rainfall/year), moderately cool climate. It contains about 2 million hectares of cultivated land excessively fragmented into tiny (3-5 hectares) family-owned farms, or minifúndios, a consequence of ancient settlement patterns, a strong attachment to the land, and the tradition of subdividing land equally among family members. The farms in the north produce the potatoes and kale that are used to make caldo verde soup, a staple of the Portuguese diet, and the grapes that are used to make vinho verde (green wine), a light sparkling white wine said to aid the digestion of oily and greasy food. Northern farms are too small to benefit from mechanization and their owners too poor to invest in irrigation, chemical fertilizers, or better seeds; hence, agriculture in the north has remained labor intensive, despite efforts to regroup minifúndios to increase farm size and efficiency.The center (roughly between the Douro and the Tagus River) is bisected by the Mondego River, the land to either side of which is some of the most fertile in Portugal and produces irrigated rice, corn, grapes, and forest goods on medium-sized (about 100 hectares) farms under a mixture of owner-cultivation and sharecropping. Portugal's center contains the Estrela Mountains, where sheep raising is common and wool, milk, and cheese are produced, especially mountain cheese ( Queijo da Serra), similar to French brie. In the valley of the Dão River, a full-bodied, fruity wine much like Burgundy is produced. In the southern part of the center, where the climate is dry and soils are poor, stock raising mixes with cereal crop cultivation. In Estremadura, the area north of Lisbon, better soils and even rainfall support intensive agriculture. The small farms of this area produce lemons, strawberries, pears, quinces, peaches, and vegetables. Estremadura also produces red wine at Colares and white wine at Buçelas.The south (Alentejo and Algarve) is a vast rolling plain with a hot arid climate. It contains about 2.6 million hectares of arable land and produces the bulk of Portugal's wheat and barley. It also produces one of Portugal's chief exports, cork, which is made from bark cut from cork oaks at nine-year intervals. There are vast groves of olive trees around the towns of Elvas, Serpa, and Estremoz that provide Portugal's olives. The warm climate of the Algarve (the most southern region of Portugal) is favorable for the growing of oranges, pomegranates, figs, and carobs. Almonds are also produced. Farms in the south, except for the Algarve, are large estates (typically 1,000 hectares or more in size) known as latifúndios, worked by a landless, wage-earning rural work force. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, these large estates were taken over by the state and turned into collective farms. During the 1990s, as the radicalism of the Revolution moderated, collectivized agriculture was seen as counterproductive, and the nationalized estates were gradually returned to their original owners in exchange for cash payments or small parcels of land for the collective farm workers.Portugal adopted the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) when it joined the European Union (EU) in 1986. The CAP, which is based on the principles of common pricing, EU preferences, and joint financing, has shifted much of Portugal's agricultural decision making to the EU. Under the CAP, cereals and dairy products have experienced declines in prices because these are in chronic surplus within the EU. Alentejo wheat production has become unprofitable because of poor soils. However, rice, tomatoes, sunflower, and safflower seed and potatoes, as well as Portuguese wines, have competed well under the CAP system.
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